For more than a decade, governments, donors, NGOs, and the private sector have invested heavily in closing the digital divide around the world by expanding connectivity, increasing smartphone ownership, and bringing more women online. But while digital technology can open access to information, markets, financial services, education, and social networks that were previously out of reach, growing evidence suggests that access alone is not enough.
In reality, the act of placing a smartphone in a woman’s hands does not guarantee that she can use it to strengthen her livelihood or expand her opportunities. Ownership is not the same as meaningful use, and use is not the same as agency.
At Trickle Up, this understanding shaped our qualitative study of digital agency among women participating in the MPowered program in India, implemented with Tata Communications and state rural livelihoods missions. In our research, we asked a simple question: what enables women living in extreme poverty not just to access digital technology, but to exercise agency through it?
Access Does Not Equal Control
One of the clearest findings was that a phone in the household is not the same as a phone a woman can use freely. Across the communities we studied, smartphones were commonly shared among family members. Women often accessed them only after others had finished using them, while men typically controlled decisions about repairs, cellular data, digital payments, and interactions with government services. These arrangements were generally viewed as normal household practice, reflecting existing divisions of labor and access around finances, mobility, and literacy.
Women who had reliable control over a smartphone in their households were far more likely to practice regularly, build confidence, and expand their digital skills, while those relying on shared devices had fewer opportunities to experiment or integrate technology into everyday life. Access, therefore, must be understood not simply as ownership, but as consistent, autonomous use.
Digital Agency Requires Ongoing Support
Our research also showed that digital engagement is fragile. Women’s ability to stay connected depends on factors such as the affordability of data plans, phone repairs, electricity, and network reliability. When money was scarce, paying phone plans was often postponed. A broken device could remain unused for months because repairs were unaffordable, and weak connectivity and power outages further interrupted digital participation.
These practical barriers matter because our programs have revealed that digital agency is not permanent. When women lose regular access to a functioning device, their skills decline, confidence fades, and their reliance on others increases. This challenges the common assumption that digital progress is linear. One-time interventions may increase access, but sustaining digital agency requires continued support.
Skills Grow Through Practice
Similarly, digital literacy is not acquired once and retained indefinitely. Women consistently described learning how to use their smartphones through repeated practice: trying new applications, making mistakes, and gradually mastering their skills.
When access was interrupted, many forgot the functions they had previously mastered. Even relatively short gaps reduced both confidence and competence. The women who became the most capable users were not necessarily those who received the most training, but those who had regular opportunities to use technology over time.
Social Norms Shape Digital Possibilities
Perhaps the most important finding is that technology does not exist outside its social context. Women’s digital engagement was often shaped by household dynamics, community expectations, and gender norms.
Using a phone inside the home was frequently acceptable, while using one publicly or engaging with social media could attract criticism. Younger and unmarried women frequently faced even greater scrutiny because phone ownership was associated with concerns about reputation.
Additionally, many women internalized prevailing notions, describing themselves as too old, insufficiently educated, or lacking any reason to use digital technology. As a result, women who possessed the technical skills to use smartphones did not always feel entitled to do so. Digital agency therefore depends on more than technical competence, instead also requiring social environments that encourage women to explore and make their own choices.
From Digital Inclusion to Digital Agency
Taken together, these findings suggest a broader vision of digital inclusion. Expanding connectivity and device ownership remains essential, but meaningful empowerment depends on more than just access. Women need reliable control over technology, opportunities to practice and build confidence, sustained affordability, and supportive social environments that enable them to use digital tools in ways that matter to them.
For donors, governments, NGOs, and researchers, this means we must go beyond simple measurements of who is connected and instead ask who has meaningful control and confidence in using digital technology. Programs designed with these conditions in mind are far more likely to produce lasting gains in women’s economic inclusion.
At Trickle Up, we believe that access is only the first step. The ultimate goal is digital agency: ensuring that women have the resources, autonomy, skills, and confidence to use technology on their own terms and to expand the opportunities available to them.
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